Toggle navigation. Language English. Habitat and Adaptation Common caiman Caiman crocodilus , also called Narrow-snouted spectacled caiman. French Guiana. Every organism has a unique ecosystem within which it lives. This ecosystem is its natural habitat. This is where the basic needs of the organism to survive are met: food, water, shelter from the weather and place to breed its young. All organisms need to adapt to their habitat to be able to survive. This means adapting to be able to survive the climatic conditions of the ecosystem, predators, and other species that compete for the same food and space.
An adaptation is a modification or change in the organism's body or behaviour that helps it to survive. Explore the links given here to know more about habitats and how different plants and animals. This can influence bottom-up processes and, hence, the length and structure of food webs.
For instance, migratory Pacific salmon Onchorhynchus spp. This nutrient subsidy, in turn, has a substantial impact on the structure and function of the ecosystem Janetski et al.
Moreover, bears Ursus spp. Changes in the abundance and behavior of salmon and the scavengers—because of overexploitation, barriers to migration, habitat degradation, and climate change—can, therefore, alter the nutrient status of both freshwater and adjacent terrestrial ecosystems Hocking and Reynolds Altered behaviors that change the network structure of species interactions are expected to influence ecosystem stability Berlow ; Hoover and Tylianakis ; Rooney and McCann Reduced diversity of species and the homogenization of species interaction networks can reduce the resilience of the ecosystem and thereby increase the risk of drastic perturbations of the ecosystem.
A dynamically variable interaction network, on the other hand, with species interactions that are changeable in both presence and strength, can buffer the ecosystem against such perturbations and maintain stability.
This influence on ecosystem stability emphasizes the importance of determining how behavioral responses alter species interaction networks. Specifically, the effect of environmental change on ecosystem stability may not be evident when inspecting only pairwise interactions.
Nevertheless, it is important to also point out that some human-induced changes appear to have a positive effect on ecosystem stability. For instance, the introduction of species into new areas can improve stability if it gives rise to novel interactions. Importantly, by increasing the complexity of the network structure, these novel interactions may act as a buffer against secondary extinctions Traveset et al.
Ecosystems usually face a multitude of human-induced stressors at the same time, which can work in a variety of ways to influence species interactions. A well-known example comes from Lake Victoria in East Africa, where a decline in water clarity as a result of eutrophication has eroded the visual signals important in maintaining reproductive isolation among closely related cichlid species Seehausen et al.
More generally, because species are embedded in complex communities, any behaviorally mediated changes to a specific interaction will depend on how other interactions are affected. This complex interplay between species and the environment can make it exceedingly difficult to predict exactly how human-induced changes to behavior will influence the structure, function, and stability of ecosystems.
Furthermore, because of eco-evolutionary feedbacks, environmentally mediated changes to behavior can also affect evolutionary processes and, in so doing, generate further ecological change Estes et al. An example of this is seen in Trinidadian guppies Poecilia reticulata , which inhabit streams associated with different predatory fish communities. Guppies adapted to life in high- and low-predation sites have evolved differences in diet.
In a study highlighting the dynamic nature of the feedback between ecological and evolutionary processes, Bassar et al. In the next section, we focus more specifically on the evolutionary consequences of environmentally mediated changes to behavior and consider the potential role that evolution plays in facilitating responses to altered conditions in the longer term.
Changes in abiotic and biotic factors that influence behavior can affect evolutionary processes either by inducing behavioral responses that impact on the processes themselves or by bringing about evolutionary changes in behavior Sih et al. The introduction and subsequent spread of invasive cane toads Rhinella marina across Australia provides a good example.
Cane toads are highly toxic to snake predators, resulting in strong selection pressure on native snakes to evolve behaviors that help them to avoid devouring the toxic toads Phillips and Shine Selection has played a pivotal role in shaping the behavior of the invader too, with cane toads evolving longer legs to facilitate their rapid dispersal across the landscape Phillips et al.
Evolutionary-induced changes to behavior could also be important in ameliorating the impacts of climate change Pulido and Berthold In black caps Sylvia atricapilla , birds that overwinter closer to their breeding grounds avoid the high cost of migrating over longer distances and are able to rapidly adjust the timing of reproduction to food availability. Because the phenotypic changes in migratory behavior reflect actual genetic shifts in the population, it would appear that resident populations have the capacity to very rapidly evolve to changing conditions Pulido and Berthold But is this always the case?
It has been suggested that behavioral responses to environmental change can facilitate evolutionary changes by preventing drastic population declines, which are critical in buying much-needed time for genetic changes to accrue The Baldwin effect; Pigliucci ; West-Eberhard ; Crespi ; Ghalambor et al. Behavioral responses can also expose hidden genetic variation to selection, thereby increasing the probability of adaptive genetic changes Grether For instance, plastic adjustments to the timing of migration in response to climate change can potentially conceal the genetic variation that selection could otherwise be acting on to bring about adaptive genetic changes.
An evolutionary response may thus be delayed until individuals have reached the limits of their plasticity and genetic variation is finally exposed to the powers of selection.
This can drastically shorten the time available for genetic changes to accrue, which may hinder evolutionary rescue. This is particularly true for human-mediated environmental changes, which, as we have already discussed, are often much more rapid than nonanthropogenic sources of change Hendry et al. Whether the behavioral response will facilitate or hinder genetic adaptation depends on the degree to which the response is sufficient in adjusting to the altered conditions and on the existence of genetic variation in the direction of selection when the behavioral response is not sufficient i.
In the context of sexual selection, environmental changes can affect not only the evolution of sexually selected traits but also the costs and benefits of sexually selected behaviors Candolin and Wong b. Consequently, an important issue is whether sexually selected behaviors, such as mate choice and mate competition, should help or hinder adaptation to environmental change Candolin and Heuschele On the one hand, changes to the environment that increase the fitness costs of mating behaviors e.
On the other hand, sexually selected behaviors that are adaptive under novel conditions could have the capacity to promote the good genes process and accelerate adaptation Lorch et al. If environmental change weakens sexual selection e. This is because strong sexual selection is expected to otherwise suppress the amount of genetic variation within a population Kirkpatrick and Ryan As genetic variation is crucial in adapting to novel selection pressures, a weakening of sexual selection with changing environments might, therefore, improve the possibility of adaptation Wilson et al.
This is clearly a contentious area that desperately warrants further investigation. Environmentally mediated changes to mating behaviors can shape the course of evolution by breaking down barriers to reproductive isolation.
We earlier discussed the well-known example of the cichlid fishes of Lake Victoria in East Africa and how eutrophication has undermined the visual signals critical in preventing matings between heterospecifics Seehausen et al. Chemical pollution of the aquatic environment has also been implicated in the disruption of olfactory communication in swordtail fish Xiphophorus spp.
Both examples underscore how human-induced changes can lead to the erosion of species isolation mechanisms and, ultimately, the loss of biodiversity. Environmentally induced changes in mating behavior, however, can also promote the mechanisms underpinning speciation. In particular, altered conditions can favor the evolution of novel behaviors, which, over time, may facilitate population divergence.
For instance, human disturbance of the African rainforest has caused divergence in the song of little greenbuls Andropadus virens inhabiting habitats that differ in the level of human disturbance.
The divergence of song between habitat types is probably due to differences in signal propagation in the disturbed and undisturbed sites Smith et al. Such changes, over time, have the potential to lead to reproductive isolation among the different populations through divergent selection. Alterations of mating behavior in changing environments can consequently both promote and undermine biodiversity. In this regard, the likely outcome will depend on whether the behavioral responses improve fitness in the changed environment, the presence of species with which hybridization may occur, and the existence of genetic variation that makes evolutionary divergence possible.
This could be a consequence of limited genetic variation in the direction of selection, in which case populations are forced to wait for gene flow or mutations to provide the needed variation. Mutations take time to arise and increase in frequency, which emphasizes the importance of standing genetic variation in fuelling evolutionary rescue Futuyma The existence of favorable standing genetic variation depends, in turn, on the evolutionary history of the species and, in particular, whether the species has encountered similar conditions in the past and whether it has maintained alleles that are suitable under the new conditions Hendry et al.
A long history of being subjected to rapid environmental changes can also maintain genetic variation that can allow species to swiftly adapt to novel conditions or favor the evolution of traits that permit rapid evolutionary changes, such as the evolution of shorter generation times Hendry et al. Even when additive genetic variation in the direction of selection already exists, it is important to realize that genetic correlations among traits can prevent selection from moving populations in the appropriate direction Walsh and Blows For instance, genetic correlations due to behavioral syndromes can constrain adaptation Sih et al.
For example, in wing-dimorphic insects, such as the cricket Gryllus firmus , investment into constructing and maintaining large flight muscles leads to a lower reproductive output, which limits selection for improved flight ability Roff et al.
Human activities often reduce standing genetic variation, particularly through habitat fragmentation and reductions in population size. The prospects of species adapting to rapid environmental changes through genetic changes may, therefore, be limited.
Such prospects only increase the importance of the plastic behavioral responses we discussed at the start of our article. More research is needed to determine the ability of populations to adapt to rapid human-induced environmental changes and the role that behavior could play in facilitating or hindering this process. In particular, do populations harbor enough genetic variation in the direction of selection for evolutionary responses to occur—and will there be enough time for these responses to play out?
Or are populations forced to rely on phenotypic plasticity and behavioral responses alone? Anthropogenic disturbance and its impacts on biodiversity pose an urgent challenge to biologists.
Given the unprecedented pace and scale of human-induced changes to ecosystems worldwide, it is critical to understand whether and how organisms will cope in an increasingly human-dominated world. Here, there is much that behavioral ecologists can do. As we have emphasized throughout this review, behavior is clearly important and, in most cases, is very often the first response when conditions are altered.
Behavioral plasticity, in particular, appears to be vital in helping moderate the impacts of human-induced environmental changes on populations, especially where other options, such as genetic evolution, are limited. However, as we have discussed, behavioral responses are not always adaptive. Nor is the plasticity of behavior necessarily sufficient to counter the magnitude of the changes that are taking place, even when the behavioral response appears to be beneficial.
More work, in this regard, is clearly needed, and understanding the limits of plasticity itself will be an important avenue for future research. The interplay between individual behavior and population dynamics also is in urgent need of further research attention, particularly as our knowledge is still limited when it comes to understanding the nature of the associated feedback between behavior and population-level processes.
This is important, not the least because changes in the demography of one species can affect others—with consequences for communities and ecosystems. Here, a major obstacle to comprehending how behavior will influence the structure, function, and stability of ecosystems will be to disentangle the complexity of the interactions that exist between species and the environment.
Lastly, further work is needed to expand our knowledge of how behavior mediates the evolutionary responses of organisms to environmental change and, in particular, the circumstances under which behavior might facilitate or even hinder adaptation. In this regard, it would be important to determine how behaviorally induced changes in evolutionary processes will, in turn, alter the ecosystem, resulting in feedback loops connecting behavioral responses with evolutionary and ecological processes.
Such knowledge will be crucial in allowing us to forecast the likely fate of species in the longer term and, where possible, to take the remedial actions necessary to counter the loss of biodiversity.
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How do we study behavior? Research in animal behavior informs ecology and evolution and offers solutions for problems in conservation.
Aa Aa Aa. Evolution of Behavior. Measuring Behavior. The model suggests the possibility of several entry points into the research pathway yellow rounded boxes : research can be initiated from field or laboratory observations of animal behavior, and from summarizing the literature in the form of a review article and meta-analyses.
What Does Behavior Tell Us? I thank Bradley J. Cosentino and Timothy J. Discussions with Kristin R. Douglas on the causes of behavior were fundamental to the making of Figure 1. References and Recommended Reading Berg, H.
Motile behavior of bacteria. Physics Today 53 , 24—29 Wobber, V. Bonobos exhibit delayed development of social behavior and cognition relative to chimpanzees. Current Biology 20 , — Article History Close. Share Cancel. Revoke Cancel. Keywords Keywords for this Article.
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